How Is Social Media Definited

A definition of social media as well as an overview of common types.

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Please cite this encyclopedia entry as follows:

Manning, J. (2014.) Social media, definition and classes of. In K. Harvey (Ed.),

Encyclopedia of social media and politics (pp. 1158-1162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

p. 1158

Social Media, Definition and Classes of

Social media is the term often used to refer to new forms of media that involve interactive

participation. Often the development of media is divided into two different ages, the broadcast

age and the interactive age. In the broadcast age, media were almost exclusively centralized

where one entity—such as a radio or television station, newspaper company, or a movie

production studio—distributed messages to many people. Feedback to media outlets was often

indirect, delayed, and impersonal. Mediated communication between individuals typically

happened on a much smaller level, usually via personal letters, telephone calls, or sometimes on

a slightly larger scale through means such as photocopied family newsletters.

With the rise of digital and mobile technologies, interaction on a large scale became

easier for individuals than ever before; and as such, a new media age was born where

interactivity was placed at the center of new media functions. One individual could now speak to

many, and instant feedback was a possibility. Where citizens and consumers used to have limited

and somewhat muted voices, now they could share their opinions with many. The low cost and

accessibility of new technology also allowed more options for media consumption than ever

before – and so instead of only a few news outlets, individuals now have the ability to seek

information from several sources and to dialogue with others via message forums about the

information posted. At the core of this ongoing revolution is social media. The characteristics,

common forms, and common functions of social media are explored here.

Core Characteristics

All social media involve some sort of digital platform, whether that be mobile or stationary. Not

everything that is digital, however, is necessarily social media. Two common characteristics help

to define social media. First, social media allow some form of participation. Social media are

never completely passive, even if sometimes social networking sites such as Facebook may

allow passive viewing of what others are posting. Usually, at bare minimum, a profile must be

created that allows for the beginning of the potential for interaction. That quality in and of itself

sets social media apart from traditional media where personal profiles are not the norm. Second,

and in line with their participatory nature, social media involve interaction. This interaction can

be with established friends, family, or acquaintances or with new people who share common

interests or even a common acquaintance circle. Although many social media were or are

initially treated or referred to as novel, as they continue to be integrated into personal and

professional lives they become less noticed and more expected.

Common Forms

As this overview of common forms of social media demonstrates, some are used primarily for

recreation or personal connections, others for work or professional reasons, but most allow

leeway for both.

Email. Probably the most common form of social media used in everyday life, email

(short for electronic mail) involves users logging into an account in order to send and receive

messages to other users. Anyone who sends or receives an email must have an account. Many

options for free email accounts are available via the World Wide Web, but many times internet

service providers will also offer free email accounts with service packages or employers will

offer email addresses to their employees. Most workplaces have strict rules about how email

accounts can be used, although many organizations report that they have no specific email

training. Those who work for public organizations (including politicians, professors at state

universities, and administrators and assistants for government offices) are often subject to open

records laws that will allow interested people or organizations to request any emails sent or

received to a government funded email account or an email account used to conduct government

business.

p. 1159

Use of email actually pre-dates the internet, with some organizations having the ability to

send messages electronically within a local computing network. As the Internet rose to

prominence, sending messages across different servers also became a possibility. Email acts as a

quick and highly reliable way to send documents or images, updates or important details at a

moment's notice, or to share one piece of information with a large number of people. Many

people face issues with spam, or unsolicited email that is usually from commercial sources.

Many times spam is exacerbated by computer viruses that use email programs to capture all of

the email addresses in a user's address book. An address book is the list of email addresses that

an individual saves to quickly send an email to an individual or a group of people. People often

divide an address book into different kinds of friends, colleagues, or family members to send

correspondence to those who it is most relevant.

Texters. Similar to email, a texter is a two-way communication channel that allows

individuals to quickly send a message to another person or a group of people. Although media

portrayals often make it look as if texting is a particularly youthful behavior, people of all ages

have adapted to texting. Still, younger individuals tend to text more often and usually do so at a

faster speed. As texting technology has improved, it is easier to text photos or to copy and paste

links into texters in order to share them with others. Texters often make use of emoticons, the use

of keyboard characters to make pictures such as a smiley face (e.g., :-P), a practice that is also

common with email. Texters are derived from chatters, or computer programs that make use of

the internet to allow people to quickly talk back and forth via text characters. Although the use of

texting is often highly convenient and allows many benefits, particular attention has been paid to

two texting behaviors that has led to problems: texting while driving and sexting. It is estimated

that texting while driving makes a car crash almost 23% more likely. Sexting is mostly harmful

when adolescent children share pictures that are later redistributed to others by the receiver. In

some cases, those forwarding pictures of people under the age of 18 have been charged with

child pornography. Politicians have faced scrutiny for sharing sexual messages with others,

including interns. Despite these problematic potentials, many adults report that sexting is a

satisfying alternative to sexual interaction when they are away from their partners.

Blogs. The word blog is derived from the word weblog. A blog is a webpage where an

individual or group can share information or ideas with a large group of people via the internet. It

is not uncommon for a person to start a blog and then never update it again. Some of the most

successful blogs are updated on a regular basis so the followers of the blog can know when to

expect new entries. Blogs cover a wide range of topics, including political issues of all kinds. A

common feature to blogs is a feedback forum where, after reading an entry, people can interact

with both the blog author and others who have commented. Many traditional media outlets have

adopted blog-like features online in order to entice readers to continue sticking with their news

or entertainment offerings. For example, many newspaper stories end with the opportunity for

readers to share their thoughts or comments about a current issue. These news stories—

especially when about hot or particularly partisan political issues—can lead to serious debates.

Because of the contentious nature many blogs and news outlets find, it is not uncommon for a

user to be required to register in order to participate.

p. 1160

Message boards. It is not uncommon for fans of television programs or other popular

entertainment to frequent message boards that allow users to post messages that talk about a

clearly defined subject. Message boards also prove popular with people seeking social support or

advice, whether that is wounded warriors trying to make sense of life after war or someone

facing breast cancer who wants to talk to someone else who has been through the experience.

Advice is also offered through review sites such as Yelp that allow users to rate businesses such

as restaurants.

Connection sites. Online dating is another form of social media. Users approach online

dating sites—some that require paid membership and others that are free of charge—and create a

profile that tells who they are and what they seek in a relationship. Some may be skeptical about

how honest some are about the information displayed in an online profile, but research shows

that people are generally honest. The stigma placed upon online dating sites has continued to

diminish as more people continue to use them in order to meet dating partners. In addition to

dating, others may use connection sites to find friends or activity partners. For example, the

connection site Meet Up allows users to find activist groups, book clubs, or hobby circles. Users

enter a profile, and then they can even send messages to meet up group leaders in order to learn

more about the activity or see if they would make a good fit for the group.

Social networking sites. Facebook and other social networking sites are almost ubiquitous

features in contemporary culture. Even those who choose not to create an online profile and

participate will often hear from others information gained from such social platforms. A key

distinguishing feature that makes a social networking site is the fellow list of users that one

connects with, usually based upon friendship, family, work relationships, or even weak tie

relationships. Initially social networking sites were great ways to meet new people, and although

that is still a possibility many social networking sites now discourage people from adding

connections they do not know. The public nature of information posted to social networking sites

often allow a space for social or political viewpoints to be displayed, although research suggests

much of this political activity reinforces pre-existing beliefs – especially because people tend to

be online friends with those that are most like them.

Games and entertainment. Online games and entertainment often carry a social

dimension. Puzzle games like Bejeweled or Words with Friends allow friends to challenge each

other for higher scores, send gifts that will allow for advanced game play, or even collaborate to

beat a game together. Other games such as Farmville carry social dimensions where people can

build a virtual farm, town, or business and fellow players can patronize or lend a helping hand to

each other. Many times these games will automatically send requests to others to join in, much to

the chagrin of those receiving such requests. It is becoming more common that these games will

allow for some kind of chat or interaction to accompany each move.

Apps. Short for mobile applications, apps are not necessarily social media oriented; but

many times people can connect through apps via another form of social media (typically

Facebook) and many times apps in and of themselves have some kind of social dimension. One

example is Grindr, an app that allows gay men to find other gay men who are within close

proximity. Like many apps, Grindr uses a smartphone location tracker to determine where the

user is and to determine the distance between other users.

p. 1161

Common Functions

As the classes of social media make clear, social media have many different functions. First, they

allow people to do identity work. When an individual puts who he or she is into a profile, it

requires some kind of reflection. As individuals see reaction to their online social presence, they

will consider themselves in new light and notice that online interaction allows them to feel more

open about thoughts, opinions, and inquiries – both for better and for worse. Second, social

media allows people to tend to their relationships in different ways. Even if popular discourse

often demonizes outlets such as Facebook or Twitter as narcissistic and shallow, research shows

they allow people who may not otherwise be able to connect an outlet to interact. People also

report meeting some of their best friends and even spouses through computer-mediated

communication platforms. Third, social media allow people to perform work functions.

Sometimes the social media is their work, such as a popular blog or someone with a large social

network circle being hired to promote events. Other times people interact with work colleagues

via social media sites or, especially with email, take care of most of their work communication

using the social media outlet.

Fourth, social media allow for people to seek information or share ideas. This

information can range from political campaigns to local issues to disaster relief to where is a

good place to buy plus size clothing. Fifth, and often in line with information sharing, people can

also offer opinions or consider the opinions of others through social media. Finally, individuals

can find entertainment through such sites.

Jimmie Manning

Northern Illinois University

See Also: Blogs; Facebook; Second Life; Social media, adoption of

Further Readings

boyd, danah m., & Ellison, Nicole B. (2007). "Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and

Scholarship." Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 13, article 11.

http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/boyd.ellison.html

p. 1162

Snowden, Collette (2006). "Casting a Powerful Spell: The Evolution of SMS". In Anandam P.

Kavoori and Noah Arceneaux, The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation. New

York: Peter Lang. pp. 107–08.

Wright, Kevin B., & Webb, Lynne M. Computer-Mediated Communication in Personal

Relationships. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.

... Social media is a term commonly used to refer to "new forms of media which involve interactive participation" [22]. Social media can be defined as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content" [23]. ...

... Social media can be defined as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content" [23]. There are 2 characteristics of social media i.e., 1) social media allow some form of participation; and 2) social media involve interaction whether with established friends, family, or acquaintances or with new people who share common interests or even a common acquaintance circle [22]. ...

... A social networking application (social app) is a social networking tool that mediates the connection and communication between people without having the full functionality of a social network (Manning, 2014). On the other hand, social media are channels that "allow users to interact opportunistically and selectively self-present, either in real-time or asynchronously, with both broad and narrow audiences who derive value from user-generated content and the perception of interaction with others" (Carr, Hayes 2015, 50). ...

• Milen Nikolaev Filipov
• Dinka Zlateva

The purpose of the research was to explore the experiences of Bulgarian university students, representatives of generations Y and Z, with breaking the rules of the Standard of Bulgarian language when communicating with textual posts on the Facebook social network site (SNS) and social networking applications (apps). Breaking language norms is due to the perception of the SNS and social apps communication as speaking rather than writing. Therefore, many of the language rules applicable to the writing are broken. The research employed a phenomenological inductive research strategy. It used a narrative literature review from 2011 to 2021 and an in-depth interview of 15 university students as research instruments. The theoretical framework was built on the theory of communication accommodation and audience design. Two main themes crystallized in the in-depth interviews: 1) communication in SNS and social apps – visual, verbal, and informal and 2) context and communicator determine the level of the Bulgarian language rules observance. In these themes, perceiving SNS communication as speaking, not as writing, hurrying up to join the communication, and the perception of the online environment as informal, explained the breaking the language rules. The research is the first to study the issue in the context of the experiences of the language users, and it opens the scientific field to further research.

... People are able to share their multimedia content like photos and videos to the platform. Manning (2014) pointed out that social media is a new form of media used for interaction between individuals. For example, one individual can shared their food experience through social media by expressing how they feel about the food and services in a particular country. ...

• Sharina Osman
• Tai Lit Cheng
• Pua Chun Chin
• Muna Norkhairunnisak Ustadi

This study aimed to identify factors influencing destination food image among the international tourists in Malaysia. Food tourism is becoming a trend among tourists. By trying different foods from different countries, tourists able to understand and gained knowledge on the country's culture. In Malaysia, the food knowledge among the international tourists are limited. Although there are several Malaysian foods which are popular, it still remained unknown for the tourists. This caused international tourists to feel strange and unfamiliar with the food heritage in Malaysia. A quantitative research was carried out, where questionnaires were distributed to the international tourists in Malaysia using Google Form. Sample size of 278 respondents were collected, and Partial Least Square – Structural Equation Model (PLS-SEM), SmartPLS 3.0. was used to run the data. Result showed among the five independent variables, only Social Media do not have significant relationship with Destination Food Image. Discussion and result of these 5 variables were explained in this study. Lastly, limitations and recommendations were included to provide contribution to the future academicians who are interested in the related field.

... Dijital ve mobil teknolojilerin gelişmesi ile, bireyler arasındaki iletişim oranı önceki zamanlara göre bir hayli artış gösterdi; öyle ki, medya işlevlerinin merkez noktasına interaktifliğin doğduğu yeni bir medya oluşumu gerçekleşti. Dolayısıyla günümüzde birçok birey anlık geri dönütün mümkün olduğu bir medya kullanım imkanına erişti (Manning, 2014). ...

• Fuat Erduğan

The Effects of Social Media Image on Exercise Participation

... One way to achieve a holistic care is by sharing information either via the traditional face-to-face medium or through the use of social media and or social network. Manning (2014) defined social media as the forms of media that involve interactive participation among people of likeminds.It is an interactive digitally-mediated technology that facilitates the creation, sharing and exchange of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual community of practice and various professional networks. ...

The use of social networking in industry and academic has been recognised in the literature. However, there are dearth of literature on the extent to which medical officers in Nigeria are making use of the social media for disease diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. The current study therefore seeks to investigate the extent of use of social media among medical officers in Nigeria hospitals. The study adopted the survey research design. A total of 250 medical officers were randomly selected across the hospitals in Nigeria. Data for the study was collected via online google form which was sent to the social media and social networking site of the medical association of Nigeria. The data gathered was checked for validity and reliability and subsequently analyzed using relative importance index (RII) with the aid of the IBM statistical package for social science (SPSS) and Microsoft excel version 21. Findings from the study revealed that the overall RII of the use of social media is greater than the threshold of 0.5. In terms of relative importance, it shows that WhatsApp has the highest (RII = 0.86) indicating high preference and highest relative importance. With regards to benefits of social media use, majority of respondents agreed that social media helps in gaining new ideas, skills or techniques (RII = 0.88), this was closely followed by avoidance of situation that can expose someone in the contacting of COVID-19 (RII = 0.87). With regards to factors militating the use, the findings shows that personality/individualism (RII = 0.83) was ranked first among the factors, while lack of network availability (RII = 0.79) was ranked 2nd. The study concluded that it is essential that health organizations should incorporate social media in their medical communication strategies, to modernize the approaches currently in use with a view to significantly increase the likelihood of reaching different patients with diverse health conditions.

... Bireyler arasındaki aracılı iletişim genellikle çok daha küçük bir düzeyde, genellikle kişisel mektuplar, telefon görüşmeleri yoluyla veya bazen fotokopisi alınmış aile haber bültenleri gibi araçlar yoluyla gerçekleşmekteydi. Etkileşim çağında ise sosyal medya bireysel katılıma izin veren ve doğası gereği etkileşim içeren bir yapı olarak ortaya çıkmıştır (Manning, 2014). ...

... Social media as a term, according to Manning (2014), refers to new forms of media that involve highly interactive participation. He notes that the development of media is divided into two different ages; the Broadcast Age and the Interactive Age. ...

The evolution of mass media, its historical transformation from traditional to new media, and the convergence of multimedia to form these new media, for example the social media; a process otherwise known as mediamorphosis, are all products of technological advancements and fulfillments of the 'McLuhanian prophecy' which asserted that internet will one day turn the world into a "global village", thereby creating a virtual community and making the world a marketplace of ideas. In agreement with this claim, social media have now created feedback-oriented platforms where entrepreneurs all over the world, can create brand awareness through online personal selling, sales promotion, and advertising. This study, therefore, examined the effectiveness of social media marketing in boosting entrepreneurship for economic development in Nigeria, using Ebonyi State as a case study. Using survey research method, the study analyzed data collected from 384 business owners. Findings revealed that most of the respondents use social media but are ignorant of the application of social media marketing strategies in boosting business growth. Hence, the researchers recommend, among other recommendations, that the Ebonyi State government should introduce an entrepreneurship-oriented programme on the state owned radio station, Salt FM 98.1 MHz, and sustain it through sponsorship, as a way of creating the needed awareness which will be instrumental in boosting entrepreneurship for economic development in Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

• Mwidima Peter Charles
• Martin Nyoni

The attention of this study was to examine the contributions made by social media as "sources of information" to the newspapers in Tanzania. Specifically, the study examined the extent through which social media had contributed news stories for the selected newspapers in the country. The study also sought to determine the social media which had often contributed news stories to the selected newspapers. Lastly, the study, pursued to determine the contents and nature of the stories retrieved from the social media by the selected newspapers. This was a content analysis study which utilized documentary review of the three selected newspapers. Three newspapers of Mwananchi, Daily News, and the Citizen were purposefully selected for the study. A recording manual was designed and used during the documentary review and the unit of analysis included: hard news stories, soft news stories, column, editorial comment, features and sports stories. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data since the study carried qualitative data. The findings suggest that social media have played a significant contribution in providing news stories for the newspapers in Tanzania. It further suggest that, in all social media used, Twitter is the number one social media which provides more news stories to the newspapers in Tanzania. Lastly, the findings suggest that most of the news stories retrieved from social media were political stories, entertainment, and sports.

Nowadays, protection of the natural environment is the fundamental duty and challenge of humanity. Adverse environmental changes make it necessary to encourage behaviors that will reduce our negative impact. Due to the development of media, information reaches consumers through various channels. New media, including mobile applications, are becoming increasingly popular. Their potential impact on young consumers cannot be overestimated as young people are able to modify their attitudes, behaviors and habits more easily than older ones. The main aim of this study was to recognize the use of eco-applications as a new source of information in the field of pro-environmental behavior of young people studying in Poland. The research objectives included the identification of pro-environmental behaviors most often declared by students, verifying their recognition and use of eco-applications, and determining the features of eco-app design expected by young users. The study involved the methods of desk research, in-depth interview and computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI). The empirical material obtained from 772 students representing Generation Z underwent quantitative and qualitative analysis, which allowed for the verification the proposed hypotheses. The respondents most often declared pro-environmental behavior in the household context. As regards eco-apps, the respondents were most likely to recognize applications promoted via traditional media. The main feature expected of eco-app design was ease of use, which does not mean that users expected the app to be in Polish, as this criterion was relatively low rated. The Mann-Whitney test and the Kruskal-Wallis test revealed relationships between such variables as gender, place of residence or income and pro-environmental behavior, the use of selected eco-apps and the expected features of eco-app design.

• Lynne Webb

Here is the first collection of readings on computer mediated communication focusing exclusively on interpersonal interactions. The essays examine messages via email, twitter, Facebook, websites and blogs; the authors focus their analysis on communication issues of ongoing importance in relational studies such as deception, disclosure, identity, influence, perception, privacy, sexual fidelity, and social support. Because the book provides a synthesis of ideas at the nexus of interpersonal communication theory and computer-mediated communication theory, it can serve as a textbook for advanced undergraduate classes as well as graduate. Each chapter provides a theory-based synthesis and analysis of a growing body of research on subjects that attract intense student interest, including on-line performance of gender, on-line dating, and using computer-mediated communication to achieve family /work life balance. The editors hope this book will inspire further research and course development in the area of computer-mediated communication in personal relationships.

Casting a Powerful Spell: The Evolution of SMS

• Collette Snowden

Snowden, Collette (2006). "Casting a Powerful Spell: The Evolution of SMS". In Anandam P.

The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation

• Noah Kavoori
• Arceneaux

Kavoori and Noah Arceneaux, The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation. New York: Peter Lang. pp. 107–08.

See Also: Blogs; Facebook; Second Life; Social media, adoption of Further Readings boyd, danah m

See Also: Blogs; Facebook; Second Life; Social media, adoption of Further Readings boyd, danah m., & Ellison, Nicole B. (2007). "Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship." Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 13, article 11. http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/boyd.ellison.html p. 1162

The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation

• Collette Snowden

Snowden, Collette (2006). "Casting a Powerful Spell: The Evolution of SMS". In Anandam P. Kavoori and Noah Arceneaux, The Cell Phone Reader: Essays in Social Transformation. New York: Peter Lang. pp. 107-08.

How Is Social Media Definited

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290514612_Definition_and_Classes_of_Social_Media

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